121 Outline #2

The American Revolution, Act II - The External Revolution or The War for Independence, 1775-1783  (To read a remakable poem about "Washington Crossing the Delaware", click here!)

C. End of war: end of Revolution? NO!

{COLONISTS}

Loyalists           Americans

Benjamin Rush (1783): "The American War is over. But this is far from the case with the American Revolution. On the contrary, only the first [second] act of the great drama is at a close."

The American Revolution, Act III - The Internal Revolution (The struggle among Americans to determine their political and economic priorities as an independent nation), 1776 - ?

Scene One - The Political Disagreement, 1776-1789

A. Americans' pre-1776 view of government

1. Source of sovereignty?

2. Eligible to participate?

B. Post-1776 American view(s):

"Popular sovereignty"

1. wanted as little change as possible beyond independence; tended to be Spokesman? 2. wanted sweeping changes beyond independence; tended to be Spokesman? 3. The state debate a. Massachusetts b. Pennsylvania

4. The national debate

a. The Articles of Confederation

(1) Nature of Articles: Was it an ...

(a) elitist ... or a (b) democratic document?

 

 

(2) Problems of the Confederation

(a) Diplomatic humiliations (b) Sectional dangers (danger of western secession)

{1} Examples of the Articles of Confederation government's inability to meet western needs

{a} British troops in Ohio Valley {b} Spanish control of western commerce, by virtue of its control over the mouth of the Mississippi

{2} Efforts to secure the West to America's future

{a} Jefferson's Ordinance of 1784

- Gave Congress broad powers over territories - Provided for eventual statehood

{b} The Northwest Ordinance of 1787

-Congress would govern NW Territory - NW to become 3-5 states, equal to original 13 - Slavery forever prohibited from Northwest Territory

(c) economic problems

{1} wartime crises, addressed by Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance {2} postwar problems

{a} Morris's effort to amend Articles through assumption of state debts {b} Newburgh Conspiracy, in which Washington set a precedent for military subordination to civilian authority {c} Depression of 1780s, prompting debtor demands

- stay laws - inflation - Shays's Rebellion, 1786 {d} Elitists' response - Annapolis Convention, 1786 - Philadelphia Convention, 1787

b. The Constitution

(1) The Philadelphia (or Constitutional) Convention

(a) Motives (b) The Debates (c) The "Conventional Wisdom"

(2) Ratification

(a) The Odds

{1} Anti-Federalists' advantage {2} Federalists' advantages

{a} Ratification process (Special conventions, not state legislatures, from 9 states) {b} Wealthier, so more influential {c} National campaign strategy {d} Positive campaign

(b) State-by-state fight

{1}.

{2}.

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(c) Ratification of the Constitution: End of the Internal Revolution?

{1} Some historians argue "yes": elitists had triumphed, pulled off a counter-revolution, with the Constitution:

Political disagreement

elitists         democrats

{2} Others (including your instructor) argue "no": the Constitution provided a stable framework within which the internal political debate could continue:

Political disagreement

elitists         democrats

Scene Two - The Economic Disagreement, 1789-1800

A. The new government's strengths

1. George Washington? 2. The first Congress

a. Creation of the Cabinet b. Bill of Rights c. Judiciary Act of 1789 d. Economic policy (see B. below)

B. The debate over economic policy

1. Hamilton's proposals	2. Madison's (Jefferson's) reactions	3. Legislative fate
a. Funding the debt, foreign and domesticd	a. Wanted "discrimination" or, if impractical, to repudiate half the domestic debt	a.
b. Assumption of state debts	b. Opposed (VA had small debt, NY large)	b.
c. National Bank (loose constructionist)	c. Called Bank "unconstitutional" (strict constructionist)	c.
d. Tariffs, to protect U. S. business from imports	d. Opposed, representing  consumers	d.
e. Excise taxes, on whiskey	e. Opposed, representing farmers	e.

3. The deeper debate: what kind of society should the U. S. become?

Scene Three - The Political Disagreement, 1789-1800

A. Foreign policy disputes

1. The French Revolution

a. Hamilton opposed; pro-British

b. Jefferson supported; pro-French

c. Washington sought neutrality

2. The Citizen Genet mission - 1794

a. Hamilton opposed

b. Jefferson supported (initially)

c. Washington rebuffed Genet, whose lack of diplomacy damaged American-French relations

3. The John Jay mission - 1795

a. Hamilton initiated mission, but alledgedly undeermined Jay's negotiations for personal reasons

b. Jefferson not directly involved

c. Washington won treaty approval from the Senate despite its humiliating provisions, and Anglo-American relations remained strained

B. The Election of 1796

1. Emergence of the first American Party System

a. Hamilton's faction: "Federalists"

b. Jefferson's faction: "Republicans"

2. Outcome

a. Federalist ticket	b. Republican ticket
John Adams	Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Pinckney	Aaron Burr

C. More foreign policy disputes

1. Federalists used XYZ Affair to justify	2. Republicans claimed Alien & Sedition Acts were politically motivated:
a. The Alien Act(s), which extended the naturalization process fro 5 to 14 years	a. Alien Act would limit western (Republican) political influence
b. The Sedition Act, which prohibited criticism of the President, Congress, and federal government	b. Sedition Act would ban criticism of Adams while leaving Jefferson fair game in the Election of 1800!
	Then Republicans issued the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, calling for states' rights if the federal government oversteps its authority.

D. The political disagreement polarized (by the Alien and Sedition Acts/Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions crisis):

What should "Popular Sovereignty" mean?

1. High Federalists	2. Moderate Federalists	3. Moderate Republicans	4. Radical Republicans
Extreme elitists, willing to go even beyond the Alien and Sedition Acts, willing to use corruption to get power	Elitists, willing to go as far as the Alien and Sedition Acts to maintain power	Democrats? No, but they thought democracy was a good idea; Americans were just not yet ready for it; in the meantime, an aristocracy of talent should govern; call them "republicans"	Democrats, willing to go even beyond the KY and VA Resolutions, willing to destroy the federal government and return effective power to the states

E. The Election of 1800

1. Candidates

a. Federalists	b. Republicans
John Adams C. C. Pinckney	Thomas Jefferson Aaron Burr

2. The Campaign

3. Outcome

a. Popular vote?

b. Electoral College

Adams	Jefferson
Pinckney	Burr

4. Significance?

The peaceful transfer of power proved that the system could work!

Scene Four - The Political Disagreement, 1800-1804

Was there significance beyond the peaceful transfer of power in Jefferson's election? Did it resolve the political dispute and, if so, with which interpretation of "popular sovereignty" triumphant?

A. Historians' views of the Election of 1800 1. Henry Adams: 2. Thomas Jefferson: Jefferson out-Federalized the Federalists; 1800 saw a change of men but not of measures His election was the "Revolution of 1800"; the democratic culmination of the American Revolution B. Jefferson's democratic style: Was it substantive or mere style? (Even if the latter, could it still have had a democratizing effect on the country?) C. Jeffersonians in power

1. Finance

a. Debt issue b. National Bank (A change of degree but not of principle).

2. Judiciary

a. Federalists	b. Republicans
(1) Passed Judiciary Act of 1801, replacing that of 1789, allowing appointment of new Federalist Circuit Court judges	(2) Repealed Judiciary Act of 1801, removing newly appointed Federalists; upheld by John Marshall
(2) John Adams's "Midnight Appointments" of Federalists to other federal court positions	(2) Replaced by and with Republicans; upheld by John Marshall (Marbury v. Madison)
(3) Remaining Federalist federal court judges	(3) Impeachment weapon tried, but acquittal of Samuel Chase allowed Jefferson to break with John Randolph and the Radical Republicans. Hereafter, Jefferson would appoint Republicans to vacant federal court positions, but not Republicans who would not enforce federal laws, rather Republicans who would enforce what were now Republican-sponsored laws. (Again, a change of degree but not of principle).

3. The West

a. Reactions to the proposed Louisiana Purchase (1) Federalists opposed purchase, calling it unconstitutional (strict constructionists!) (2)Republicans approved purchase, calling it "necessary and proper" (loose constructionists!)

b. The Election of 1804 - a referendum on La. Purchase, with Jefferson overwhelmingly reelected c. Reactions to actual Louisiana Purchase (1) High Federalists (2) Moderate Federalists (3) Moderate Republicans (4)Radical Republicans Some contemplated secession: a New England confederacy? a New England/New York confederacy? Aaron Burr's intentions? Hamilton's response? Proposed selling federal land in large tracts at high prices, discouraging expansion (the West voted Republican!) Proposed selling land in small tracts at low prices with credit available, but with strict government supervision of expansion Wanted to sell land cheap or, better, give it away, letting the West become a squatters' paradise         d. The deeper significance of Jefferson's western land proposals - a compromise offer in America's political disagreement:   elitists democrats

 

Jefferson seemed to argue that if Americans were not yet ready to govern themselves democratically, the West was where they could prepare themselves, by acquiring land and by availing themselves of gov't services he hoped to provide: schools, libraries, universities, observatories. This is a different Jefferson from the one who believed that "that government is best which governs least." Now that he had power, he wanted to use it. By their votes, in 1800 and even more clearly in 1804, Americans demonstrated support for both his specific proposals and larger vision. The political dispute was resolved.

Scene Five - The Economic Disagreement, 1800-1815

 

A. Jefferson's compromise offer - What kind of society should the U. S. be?

1. Hamiltonian vision: industrialization

2. Jeffersonian vision: agrarianism

3. Jefferson's new, more realistic vision:

Business a necessity, but its opportunities should be made available to all through an active program of internal improvements at federal government expense. Connect even farmers to markets. This amounted to a call for the democratization of economic opportunity.

B. Foreign distractions (Renewed war between England and France, prompting England's "Orders-in-Council" and France's "Continental System", economic sanctions which damaged the U. S.), including

1. The Chesapeake Affair (1807), prompting 2. Jefferson's Embargo (1807-09), which damaged England economically but failed due to

a. England's hope for new markets and sources of goods to replace the U.S. b. Landed interests, not merchant party, in power in England c. Smuggling; England not hurt as badly as it might have been

Embargo repealed on Jefferson's last full day in office.

C. The Election of 1808 - James Madison, who despite many achievements, has been traditionally seen as old, tired, weak, a puppet of Jefferson by the time he assumed the Presidency. He retreats from full sanctions with

1. The Non-Intercourse Act (1809), then 2. Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810), leading to

D. The War of 1812, caused by

1. National economic interests, which were a factor, but this explanation alone fails to answer these questions:

a. Why did we go to war with England, not France, which was attacking our interests at every opportunity? b. Why did the votes for war come from the West and South, while the East, worst hurt economically, opposed war? c. Why did we go to war in 1812, rather than in 1807-09, when the U. S. economy was suffering even more?

2. National honor, which answers question a. above, but not b. or c.

3. Expansion (the desire of the West for Canada, of the South for Florida), which answers b., but not c.

4. Role of James Madison:

By 1812, the country appeared to be splitting apart. Because of his age and experience, Madison might have been anxious to "save" his life's work, renew the "Spirit of '76", so rather than being pushed into a war he didn't want, Madison may have been a major cause.

E. The Election of 1812 - Madison barely re-elected, Federalist New England again threatening secession (Hartford Convention) F. The war

1. Canadians repulsed invasion by the U. S. 2. British sacked D. C. 3. Minor U. S. naval victories boosted morale until 4. The Treaty of Ghent, which formally ended the war on December 24, 1814, but 5. The Battle of New Orleans followed on January 8, 1815, leaving Americans with the impression that they had won the war, and the nationalism and unity that Madison had hoped for swept the nation! Americans were finally free from foreign distractions, free to turn their full attention to their own development, to vote with their feet for Jefferson's compromise offer by going west in search of the economic opportunities he had promised they would find there.

By 1815, Americans had reached a consensus on what they wanted their revolution to mean, beyond independence from England: political democracy and equal economic opportunity, goals we continue to pursue.

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