A transitive verb is a verb of incomplete predication. In order to complete its predication, it requires a noun phrase (NP) after it that functions as its direct object. In a sense, the noun phrase receives or completes the action of the verb. “Queen Elizabeth I ruled England for almost forty-five years.” Queen Elizabeth I is the subject of the verb ruled. To discover if the verb is transitive, we ask two questions: the first is—is the main verb a linking verb or a verb “to be”? We ask this question because neither a linking verb nor a verb “to be” can take a direct object. If the answer to the question is no, then we ask the second question—whom or what after the verb: Queen Elizabeth I ruled whom or what. England is the answer—and the direct object. An intransitive verb is a verb of complete predication. Because its predication is complete, it does not take a noun phrase after it that functions as its direct object. For example, “Ice melts.” The verb melts needs nothing more to complete it. In some cases, however, an intransitive verb may take modifiers. “Paul Newman drove in professional car races across America.” Paul Newman is the subject of the verb drove. We ask the two questions after drove to find out if the verb takes a direct object: is the main verb a linking verb or a verb “to be”? No. Paul Newman drove whom or what. There is no logical answer to this second question. Although the verb drove takes the modifiers “in professional car races” and “across America,” both adverbial phrases that answer the questions how and where respectively (ADV P), the verb remains intransitive. A linking verb is a verb of incomplete predication. Either it takes a noun phrase (NP) after it that renames the subject, or it takes an adjective phrase (ADJ P) after it that describes the subject. Both of these are called the subject complement. “Elizabeth I became the queen of England in 1558.” Elizabeth I is the subject; became connects Elizabeth I with the noun phrase the queen of England, which renames her. Elizabeth I = the queen of England. Therefore, became functions as a linking verb. “Elizabeth I grew indecisive in her role as queen of England.” Indecisive is linked with Elizabeth I; that is, it is an adjective in the predicate that describes her. Queen Elizabeth = indecisive. Therefore, grew is a linking verb. A verb “to be” is a special category in English, as it is in many other languages. Unlike other verbs, which have five forms, to be has eight forms: be, is, am, are, was, were, being, been. Because of this special nature of the verb—and for reasons mentioned below--we separate it from transitive, intransitive, and linking verbs. Despite the separate category of this verb, it has much in common with a linking verb: as the main verb in a sentence, it does not take a direct object, and it may take a subject complement. “Queen Elizabeth I was the monarch of England for almost forty-five years”. In this sentence Queen Elizabeth I is the same as monarch; monarch is the same as Queen Elizabeth I. Like a linking verb, the verb was functions as an equals sign. We can also say “Queen Elizabeth I was indecisive.” Here indecisive describes the subject, just as a linking verb will allow its adjective to do. But the verb “to be” also has characteristics of the intransitive verb: not only doesn’t it take a direct object, but it may also take just an adverbial phrase after it. “Queen Elizabeth is in her chambers.” In this last instance, is does not require a NP or an ADJ P after it. Rather, an adverbial phrase (ADV P) comes after it. The phrase answers the question where. This is what makes the verb “to be” differ from a linking verb. Identify the verbs below as transitive, intransitive, linking, or a verb “to be.”
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