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2. Identify and or label the parts of a multipolar neuron with a myelin sheath and neurilemma including cell body, dendrites,
    axon, axon hillock and trigger zone, Schwann cell, node of Ranvier and collateral.

3. Distinguish between multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neurons.

4. Distinguish between a neuron and a nerve.

5. Describe and/or distinguish between the four basic types of neuroglial cells.
    Which type forms myelin in the CNS?
    Which is the main phagocyte in the CNS?
    Which type lines the brain ventricles and covers the choroid plexuses?

6. Describe the events occurring during an action potential and nerve impulse transmission including:
    threshold potential, facilitation, refractory period(absolute and relative), resting potential, all-or-none response,depolarization,
    repolarization, hyperpolarization, saltatory conduction, continuous (point-by-point) conduction

7. Distinguish between the rate of conduction on an unmyelinated and a myelinated fiber.

8. Describe and/or diagram and label the structure of a synapse and the events of synaptic transmission assuming the
    neurotransmitter to be acetylcholine; be familiar with each of the following: presynaptic neuron, postsynaptic neuron,
    neurotransmitter, ligand(chemically)-regulated ion gate or channel, voltage-regulated ion gate or channel, cholinesterase,
    receptor molecule, excitatory postsynaptic potential,   inhibitatory postsynaptic potential, synaptic vesicle, synaptic cleft,
    summation

9. Identify and list in sequence the parts of a polysynaptic somatic reflex arc including:
    receptor, effector, sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron

10. Explain how an injured nerve fiber and nerve may regenerate in the PNS. How fast does the nerve fiber grow?

11. Distinguish between reverberation(oscillation), convergence and divergence.

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2. Identify the major parts of the brain and associate them with their functions.
    cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum, limbic system,
    reticular formation = reticular activating system

3. Describe the location and/or function of the following areas of the cerebral cortex:
    primary motor area = somatic motor area, premotor area, Broca's area,
    primary sensory area = somatic sensory area, visual area, auditory area, olfactory area, taste area
    general interpretative(Wernicke's) area

4. Distinguish between association, commissural and projection tracts.

5. Define hemispheric specialization = lateralization of function.

6. Identify the adult brain structures that develop from the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain.

7. Identify the location of the four brain ventricles.

8. Describe the three layers of the meninges from outermost to innermost including the following terms: dura mater,
    arachnoid mater, pia mater, epidural space, dural sinuses, and subarachnoid space.

9. Describe the formation, circulation, reabsorption and composition of cerebrospinal fluid including the role of choroid
    plexuses and ependymal cells, and arachnoid villi (= arachnoid granulations). In what space does cerebrospinal
    fluid circulate around the brain and spinal cord?

10. List the 12 cranial nerves and identify their type (sensory, motor, mixed), site of origin or entry (cerebrum, thalamus,
    midbrain, etc.), and their functions.
    Which fibers originating in the eyes cross over (medial or lateral)?
    What is the name of the x-shaped structure produced by the crossings?
    Which cranial nerve carries sensory information directly to the cerebrum?
    Which  three pairs of cranial nerves control the eye muscles?
    Which pair of cranial nerves supply parasympathetic fibers to the muscles that constrict the pupils?
    Which is the largest cranial nerve and is important in dentistry?
    Which cranial nerve conveys information associated with the sense of smell? The sense of vision? The sense of
    equilibrium? The sense of hearing?
    Which cranial nerve carries about 75% of all parasympathetic fibers and supplies the heart and a variety of
    smooth muscles in the viscera of the thorax and abdomen?

11. Describe and/or be able to label an illustration of a cross-section of the spinal cord. How many pairs of spinal nerves are
      there and what is their type?

12. Be able to identify and if possible associate a function with each of the following spinal cord features: cervical enlargement,
      lumbar enlargement, conus medullaris, cauda equina, and filum terminale. At what vertebral level does the inferior spinal
      cord end as a solid cord?   At what vertebral level does the sac containing cerebrospinal fluid terminate below the
      inferior end of the spinal cord.

13. Distinguish between ascending and descending spinal tracts.

14. Define what a nerve plexus is and identify three examples. Identify some of the important nerves served by each plexus.

15. Distinguish between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
     Which division is associated with the "fight or flight response"?
     What are the preganglionic and postganglionic neurotransmitters in each division?

16. Distinguish between the components of a polysynaptic somatic, monosynaptic somatic and autonomic (visceral) reflex arc.

17. Identify EEG and distinguish between alpha, beta, theta and delta waves.

18. Distinguish between learning and memory and between short and long term  memory.

19. Define or identify the following terms:
      ganglion, nucleus, gyrus, sulcus, fissure, nerve, tract, endophins, enkephalins, substance P, decussation,  meningitis,
      hydrocephalus, corpus callosum, lumbar puncture, vermis, blood brain barrier,  intermediate mass

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2. Be able to list and/or recognize a description of the different types of somatic sense receptors.

3. Explain why a person is likely to experience a progressive diminishing of the olfactory sense with age.

4. Describe the location and structure of the receptors associated with the sense of smell.

5. Describe the path nerve impulses associated with the sense of smell follow to the cerebrum.

6. Describe the structure of a taste bud and be able to identify which cranial nerves(VII, IX and X) are associated with
    the sense of taste.

7. Be able to label and diagram and/or identify the parts of the human ear and relate them to the functioning of the ear in
    hearing and equilibrium.

9. Be able to label a diagram and/or identify the parts of the human eye and their functions.

10. List and distinguish between the four basic processes involved in the formation of an image on the retina including
      refraction, accommodation, constriction of the pupil and convergence.

11. Distinguish between the rods and cones and indicate their role in:
      a. color vision
      b. night vision
      c. formation of a sharp image

12. Describe the effect of light on rhodopsin (=visual purple) which leads to the generation of an action potential.

13. State the relationship that exists between vitamin A deficiency and night blindness.

14. Describe the pathway for nerve impulses associated with vision.

15. Define and/or identify each of the following terms:
      anosmia, cerumen, impacted cerumen, conjunctivitis (=pinkeye), receptor, otitis media, presbyopia, hyperopia,
      myopia, astigmatism, glaucoma, sty, cataract, referred pain, otosclerosis, Meissner's corpuscle,  Pacinian
      corpuscle, optic disk (=blind spot)

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3. List and identify the parts of a nephron:
    renal corpuscle - glomerulus, glomerular(Bowman's) capsule
    renal tubule - proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop(loop of Henle) including descending and ascending limbs,
    distal convoluted tubule

4. Distinguish between cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons.

5. Outline the pattern of renal circulation starting with blood leaving the abdominal aorta and finishing with venous blood
    entering the inferior vena cava:
    renal arteries and veins, interlobar arteries and veins, arcuate (arciform) arteries and veins,
    interlobular arteries and veins, afferent and efferent arterioles, glomeruli (singular glomerulus),
    peritubular capillaries and vasa recta
 
6. Distinguish between the following basic renal processes involved in urine formation:
    glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, tubular secretion

7. Describe the forces involved in glomerular filtration:
    glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure, capsular hydrostatic pressure, blood osmotic pressure

8. Identify the features of the filtration membrane(glomerular capillaries and visceral layer of Bowman's capsule)
    that make filtration possible including fenestrae, podocytes, pedicels and slit pores.

9. Contrast the composition of plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine.

10. Describe the role juxtamedullary nephrons, the medullary concentration gradient, the nephron loops and vasa recta,
      of ADH and the Countercurrent Multiplier Mechanism in forming urine that is either hypotonic or hypertonic.

11. Describe the micturition process including:
    detrusor muscle,  internal urethral sphincter (involuntary), external urethral sphincter (voluntary),
    micturition reflex

12. Describe the renin-angiotensin mechanism of elevating blood pressure.

13. Identify or define the following:
      glomerulonephritis, retroperitoneal, diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland,
      automatic bladder, juxtaglomerular apparatus, renal suppression, nephritis, renal plasma threshold,
      micturition = voiding = urination, uremia, antidiuretic hormone (ADH) = vasopressin, aldosterone

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2. Describe the role of each of the following in the maintenance of water balance in the body:
    osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus
    ADH
    kidney tubules
    electrolytes
    albumens in blood plasma

3. Define or identify:
    diabetes insipidus, edema, dehydration, water intoxication

4. Describe how the concentration of sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+) and calcium ions (Ca+2) are regulated in
    body fluids.

5. Distinguish between:
    acidosis and alkalosis
    respiratory and metabolic acidosis
    respiratory and metabolic alkalosis

6. Describe the mechanisms involved in regulation of hydrogen ion concentration in the blood including:
    acid-base buffer systems
        bicarbonate buffer system
        phosphate buffer system
        protein buffer system
    activity of the respiratory center in the brain stem
    role of the nephrons in the kidneys

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 2. Be able to identify the parts of the female reproductive system and describe the general functions of each.

 3. Outline the basic process of spermatogenesis and state where it occurs.

4. Describe the functions of sustentacular(Sertoli) cells including their role in forming a blood-testis barrier.

 5. Describe the structure of a sperm cell.

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7. Describe the composition and functions of the secretion of:
     the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland, the bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands

 8. Describe the role of the hypothalamus, the anterior lobe of the pituitary and the interstitial cells in sperm production.

 9. Outline the basic process of oogenesis indicating the stimulus for completion of meiosis (meiosis II) and contrast oogenesis
     with spermatogenesis.

 10. Be able to explain and interpret a graph of the "changes in relative concentrations of hormones during the menstrual cycle".

 11. Describe the role of the hypothalamus, the anterior lobe of the pituitary, the ovarian follicle and/or corpus luteum, on:
     a. follicle maturation, b. breast development, c. menstrual flow,  d. thickness, glandularization and vascularlization of the
     uterine lining

12. Outline the generalized menstrual cycle of a female indicating the approximate timing of:
    a. menstrual flow  b. ovulation, c. corpus luteum degeneration

13. Identify the hormone that maintains the corpus luteum if fertilization occurs and the layer of cells of the blastocyst
      that secrete it.

14. Be able to trace the path of sperm from the site of their formation to the usual point of fertilization in the uterine tube.

15. Describe the factors involved in moving sperm to the egg.

16. Describe and know the relative effectiveness of the following contraceptive methods:
    a. sterilization (vasectomy, tubal ligation)
    b. oral contraceptives (the pill)
    c. intrauterine devices (IUDs)
    d. condom (prophylactic)   (withdrawal)
    e. chemicals (spermicides)
    f. diaphragm and jelly
    g. rhythm
    h. coitus interruptus
    i. no contraceptive

17. Define and/or identify the following terms:
      androgen, testosterone, gonadotropins, gonadotropin releasing hormone, acrosome, hyaluronidase,
      interstitial cells (cells of Leydig), capacitation, emission, ejaculation, orgasm, gonads,  puberty,
      implantation, ectopic pregnancy, negative feedback system, positive feedback system, coitus,
      pregnancy, semen, seminal fluid

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2. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands and give examples of each.

3. Define what a hormone is.

4. Contrast the proposed mechanism of action of the steroid hormones with that of the protein/amino-acid based
    group of hormones.

5. Identify three mechanisms involved in the control of the secretion of hormones.

6. Identify how the secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary gland is regulated.

7. Identify the role of each of the following in regulating blood glucose level:
    adrenal cortex, adrenal medulla, pancreas, anterior pituitary

8. Identify the endocrine gland and hormone associated with a form of dwarfism, giantism and acromegaly.

9. Identify the adrenal hormone that is used as an anti-inflammatory agent.

10. Identify the site of formation of the two hormones released into the blood at the posterior pituitary; how do
      the hormones get to the posterior pituitary? What are their actions?

11. Distinguish between juvenile diabetes and adult diabetes and between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus.

12. Identify the adrenal hormones that act to re-enforce sympathetic activity.

13. Identify the two main hormones secreted in response to stress and their functions.

14. Define or identify:
      cAMP = cyclic adenosine monophosphate,pancreatic islets( islets of Langerhans), thyroid  follicle,
      iodine pump, hypothalmo-hypophyseal portal circulation, hypothalmo-hypophyseal tract

15. Distinguish between an endemic goiter and a toxic (exophthalmic) goiter.

16. Associate each of the following with undersecretion or oversecretion of a particular hormone and a specific
      endocrine gland.
      Cretinism, Addison’s disease, Grave’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome

17. Associate each of the following hormones with a particular gland/organ and its action or proposed action(s).
      melatonin, atrial natriuretic hormone, thymosin, erythropoietin

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2. Distinguish between DNA and RNA

3. Describe DNA replication

4. Identify the function of:
    a. messenger RNA (mRNA)
    b. transfer RNA (tRNA)
    c. ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

5. Outline the main events and structures associated with protein synthesis

6. Identify the amino acids in a short polypeptide if given a copy of the Genetic Code and the sequence of nucleotides on
    the DNA sense strand that codes for it.

7. Relate ATP to nucleotides

8. Distinguish between bacterial transformation and bacterial transduction.

9. Define or identify:
    gene, mutagen (=mutagenic agent), mutation, codon, anticodon, transcription, translation,  ribosome,
    oncogene, oncogenic virus

10. Outline the basic steps of the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage and contrast it with a lysogenic cycle. What is a prophage?
    What bacterial feature used in resisting bacteriophages is important in recombinant DNA technology?

11. Describe the basic structure of a retrovirus and identify the viral feature used in recombinant DNA technology.

12. Identify split gene, intron, exon and cDNA.

13. Outline the basic procedure used in recombinant DNA technology.

14. Distinguish between a germ cell and a somatic cell and briefly describe somatic cell gene therapy.

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1. Be able to analyze and solve genetic problems involving:
    a. dominant and recessive alleles (i.e. albinism and PKU)(monohybrid inheritance)
    b. incomplete dominance (sickle cell disease)
    c. multiple alleles (ABO blood groups)
    d. sex determination
    e. recessive x-linked inheritance (color blindness, hemophilia)
    f. human pedigrees

2. Be able to recognize a description of each of the following forms of inheritance:
    a. polygenic inheritance (height, skin pigmentation, etc.)
    b. y-linked (holandric) inheritance (hairy pinna)
    c. sex limited inheritance
    d. sex influenced inheritance

3. Identify the sources of variation(chnace union of sperm and egg, crossing over, independent assortment
    of chromosomes) which result in virtually every human being genetically different.

4. Be able to state the two basic rules of probability and apply them to the solution of genetic problems.

5. Describe the mechanism of sex determination in humans.

6. Be able to associate each of the following conditions resulting from nondisjunction with its description.
    a. triple X syndrome
    b. Klinefelter’s syndrome
    c. Turner’s syndrome
    d. Trisomy-21 (Down’s syndrome)

7. Distinguish between amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling listing the advantages and disadvantages
    of each procedure.

8. Describe at least three circumstances which might lead a couple to seek the advice of a genetic counselor.

9. Explain why civil and religious laws exist forbidding the marriage of closely related individuals.

10. Be able to describe or associate a written description with the different stages of meiosis.

11. Be able to define and/or identify the following terms:
    chromatin,  chromosome, gene, allele,  genotype, phenotype, codominant, homologous pair, lethal gene,
    gene pair, synapsis, autosome, sex chromosome, haploid (=monoploid) , diploid, dominant allele,
    recessive allele, homozygous, heterozygous, Punnett square

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2. Be able to list the main accessory organs and/or identify them on diagrams.

3. Be able to describe and/or answer questions about the structure of the wall of the alimentary canal including:
    mucosa, submucosa, mucularis and serosa.

4. Identify the major salivary glands. Which type enlarges in mumps? What is the technical name for mumps?

5. Describe and/or answer questions about basic tooth structure.

6. Distinguish between the types of teeth composing the primary (deciduous, milk) and secondary (permanent) sets.

7. Describe what a sphincter is and identify the location of each of the following sphincters:
    hypopharyngeal sphincter,  cardiac = gastroesophageal,  pyloric, ileocecal valve,
    internal anal sphincter, external anal sphincter

8. Identify four features of the small intestine(coiling of the tube, villi(singular villus), microvilli, plicae circulares)
    that add to its surface area at which chemical digestion and absorption occur..

9. Describe the role or influence of each of the following in the chemical reactions of digestion:
    a. water, b. temperature, c. pH, d. bile

10. List and/or answer questions about the digestive juices which act upon the food, their functions, the enzymes
      in them, and identify the organs or cells which form the secretions. What substance activates pepsinogen?
      Trypsinogen?

11. Outline which end-products of digestion are absorbed into the blood; into the lymph.

12. Be able to associate each of the following hormones with their site of production and their action in digestion:
      a. gastrin, b. cholecystokinin ( = pancreozymin), c. secretin

13. Be able to state three possible reasons why the digestive tube is not digested.

14. Describe the role of parasympathetic and sympathetic impulses in controlling digestive processes.

15. List eight functions of the liver.

16. Describe the basic pattern of circulation in the hepatic portal circuit and in a liver lobule.

17. Distinguish between peristalsis and segmentation.

18. Define and/or identify the following terms:
      gallstones, hydrolysis reactions, cholecystectomy, emulsification,  Brunner’s glands, intrinsic factor,
      Peyer’s patches, chylomicrons,  , lacteal, crypts of Liberkuhn = intestinal glands, chyme,
      peritoneum, mesentery, greater omentum, lesser omentum, tongue papillae, taste buds, cecum, taenia coli,
      haustra, esophageal hiatus, hiatal hernia, vomiting, rugae, constipation, peptic ulcer (gastric & duodenal),
      diarrhea, ileostomy, colostomy, acute pancreatitis

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2. Describe the method by which lymph initially enters lymphatic capillaries

3. Identify and describe three factors that aid the movement of lymph back to the venous circulation.

4. List four functions of the lymphatic system.

5. Identify three locations of lymphatic tissue in addition to that present in lymph nodes.

6. Identify two functions of the spleen in adults.

7. Identify the specific cell type that forms specific antibodies (=immunoglobulins) and the type of lymphocyte
    that differentiates to form the antibody producing cell. What type of immunity (humoral, cell-mediated) is
    associated with immunoglobulins? What role do T-helper cells play in humoral immunity?

8. Describe the basic structure of a typical antibody (IgG type).
    How many polypeptide chains build it?
    How many light (L) and heavy (H) chains are in it?
    How many antigen binding sites does it have?

9. Name and identify the function of antibodies based on their activities:
    antitoxin, agglutinin, lysin, opsonin, complement fixing, virus neutralizing, etc.

10. Identify the five basic classes of immunoglobulins.
      Which class is most abundant?
      Which type is responsible for the passive immunity of the newborn (crosses the placenta)?
      Which types can fix complement? Cause agglutination?
      What is the chief class present in external secretions?
      Which class plays an important role in the immediate type hypersensitivity?

11. Identify the basic sequence of events that precede and occur during an immediate type allergic response.

12. Describe the role of cell-mediated immunity in protecting the body against intracellular pathogens(viruses, bacteria)
      and cancer cells, and in rejecting tissue transplants. What type of lymphocyte is involved?

13. Outline the basic defenses (external and internal, nonspecific and specific) of the human body against pathogens.

14. Distinguish between cell-mediated and antibody-mediated(humoral) immunity.

15. Distinguish between a primary and a secondary immune response.

16. Describe the distinguishing features of autoimmune diseases.

17. Distinguish between natural and artificial active acquired and natural and artificial passive acquired immunities.

18. Distinguish between a serum and a vaccine and their roles in immunization.

19. Define and/or identify the following:
      lacteal, lymph, lymph node, macrophage, reticuloendothelial tissue, elephantiasis, lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease,
      lymphadenitis, mast cell, histamine, agammaglobulinemia, lymphadenopathy

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