Until about 1960 science fiction literature was dominated by what is commonly characterized as "hard" science fiction. The term is both descriptive and evaluative.

Hard science fiction generally uses high-tech iconology with a strong scientific component which is solidly thought-out, well-researched, and tough-minded. Its values are often male-centered, often politically rightwing or militaristic.

Hard science fiction is that variety of science fiction which highly prizes faithfulness to the physical facts of the universe while building upon them to realize new fictional worlds. In other words, hard science fiction values accurate extrapolation of known science.

Isaac Asimov says: "I define hard science fiction as those science fiction stories in which the main thrust of a plot rest on a technological or scientific puzzle that must be solved in terms that do not offend the laws of nature as we know them" (117).

Hard science fiction often revolves around the so-called "hard" sciences: astronomy, chemistry, geology, and physics. It generally includes biology and genetics as well as mathematics and computer science as well.

The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction points out that hard science fiction "should respect the scientific spirit; it should seek to provide natural rather than supernatural or transcendental explanations for the events and phenomena it describes" (Nicholls).

Many writers who specialize in hard science fiction have academic and professional backgrounds in one of the hard sciences. Golden Age writers whose works are generally considered to be hard science fiction include:

• Isaac Asimov
• Arthur C. Clarke
• Robert A. Heinlein

"The Cold Equations" by Tom Godwin is considered by many to be the quintessential hard science fiction short story.

Other writers who specialize in hard science ficiton include:

• Gregory Benford
• Joe Haldeman
• Frank Herbert
• Kim Stanley Robinson
• Robert Sawyer

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