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Introduction
Inca Empire, vast kingdom in the Andes Mountains of South America
that was created by the Quechua, a Native American people, in the
15th century ad. The Inca Empire was conquered by the Spanish in
the early 16th century.  The
Incas built a wealthy and complex civilization that ruled between
5 million and 11 million people. The Inca system of government was
among the most complex political organizations of any Native American
people. Although the Incas lacked both a written language and the
concept of the wheel, they accomplished feats of engineering that
were unequaled elsewhere in the Americas. They built large stone
structures without mortar and constructed suspension bridges and
roads that crossed the steep mountain valleys of the Andes.
The Incas conquered a number of neighboring peoples as they expanded
their area of influence outward from their home in the Cuzco valley
of highland Peru
. Inca lands eventually totaled about 906,500 sq km (about 350,000
sq mi). This territory centered on the peaks of the Andes, but extended
to the Pacific Coast and the Amazon basin. The political center
of the empire was in what is now Peru, and its territory included
parts of present-day Ecuador, Bolivia, northern Chile, and northwest
Argentina. The terrain included high grass plateaus, low-lying jungles,
deserts, and fertile river valleys. II
Origins of the Incas
Most of the major ideas and institutions incorporated within Inca
culture developed from a series of earlier Native American civilizations
in the Andes. According to legend, the people later known as Incas
began as a small group of warlike people and lived near Lake Titicaca
in southeastern Peru sometime before the 13th century. According
to Inca myth, the first Inca emperor, Manco Capac, and his three
brothers and four sisters emerged from caves in the earth. Around
the year 1200, Manco Capac led ten Inca ayllus, or clans, from Lake
Titicaca north to the fertile valley of Cuzco. The Incas conquered
the people of the area and took it over for themselves. They founded
the city of Cuzco as their capital. Manco Capac married one of his
sisters to establish the royal Inca bloodline. He and succeeding
emperors increased their power through marriage alliances and the
conquest of neighboring groups. By the reign of Viracocha Inca,
the eighth emperor, the Incas dominated an area stretching about
40 km (about 25 mi) around Cuzco. Recent archaeological evidence,
however, shows that Inca culture was developing in the Cuzco Valley
for centruries.
The Incas dramatically expanded and unified their territory after
the conquest of the Chancas, under Viracocha's son, Pachacuti Inca
Yupanqui. Pachacuti (whose name means "earthquake" or
"cataclysm") reorganized the Inca social and political
system. He and his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, were brilliant soldiers
and statesmen who extended the empire from northern Ecuador to central
Chile. Under their leadership, the Incas united the diverse native
peoples along 4800 km (3000 mi) of coast into a far-flung empire
with a common Quechuan language and way of life. These leaders brought
Inca civilization to its peak: They made the capital city of Cuzco
into the center of Inca society and government, developed a state
religion, and set up an elaborate administrative system to control
their widely scattered subjects and territories.
Political Organization
Inca society was strictly organized, from the emperor and royal
family down to the peasants. The emperor was thought to be descended
from the sun god, Inti, and he therefore ruled with divine authority.
All power rested in his hands. Only the influence of custom and
the fear of revolt checked the emperor's power. The emperor had
one official wife, but he had many royal concubines and his children
by these wives often numbered in the hundreds. The emperor chose
his most important administrators from among his sons.Just below
the emperor came the aristocracy, which included descendants and
relations of all the emperors. These pure-blooded Incas held the
most important government, religious, and military posts. The nobles
of conquered peoples also became part of the governing aristocracy
and were considered Inca by adoption.
For administrative purposes the empire was divided into regions
known as the "four suyus (quarters) of the world," with
Cuzco at its center. The Incas called their empire Tawantinsuyu,
a Quechuan word meaning "Land of the Four Quarters". One
suyu, the Antisuyu, stretched to the east of Cuzco and contained
deep, forest-covered valleys that gradually descended into the jungles
of the Amazon basin. Indian groups in this region, many of whom
were only partially pacified, continued to launch attacks against
the Incas. Cuntisuyu included all the land west of Cuzco, including
the coastal regions of Peru from Chan Chan to Arequipa. Collasuyu
was the largest of the quarters. Located south of Cuzco, it took
in Lake Titicaca and regions of Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Chincasuyu
contained the remaining land to the north of Cuzco.A blood relative
of the emperor served as governor of each quarter. The Incas further
divided each quarter into progressively smaller units, with officials
of descending rank overseeing the activities of these units. Serving
under each governor were ten district governors, each of whom ruled
over a district containing about 10,000 peasants. Another official,
ideally a leader of a large village, ruled over a smaller area containing
about 1000 peasants. At the level below, ten foremen each supervised
a total of 100 peasants. At the lowest organizational level, an
official oversaw a group of ten peasants. For every 10,000 people,
there were 1331 officials.
Inca state affairs were complex and tightly controlled. Whole native
populations were at times uprooted and resettled in other communities.
Often groups were relocated to areas where they were needed for
agricultural or mining activities. Sometimes relocations were politically
motivated. Placing Quechua-speaking populations in newly conquered
areas impaired the ability of local groups to unite against the
Incas. Furthermore, these relocations facilitated the spread of
Inca ideas and culture and promoted unity in the empire.
In order to deal efficiently with such matters, government officers
kept strict accounts of all the people, gold, land, crops, and projects
of the empire. Since the Incas had no system of writing, they kept
records by means of a quipuá series of short, knotted strings
hung at intervals from a long top string. By varying the colors
and kinds of string used and the spacing of the strings and knots,
the Incas could record populations, troops, and tribute, as well
as information about their legends and achievements. The quipu was
a complex memory aid rather than a literal record, and only a trained
quipucamayo, or memory expert, could create or interpret it. An
oral comment accompanied each quipu and allowed the quipucamayo
to make sense of its meaning. Following the Spanish conquest and
the introduction of records written in Spanish, the Incas lost the
ability to read quipus. Modern scholars still have not deciphered
the codes used in the creation of quipus.B
Public Works
The Incas' public works were built through a labor tax known as
mitáa. This tax required most people incorporated into the
Inca Empire to provide labor for public works during certain portions
of each year. This labor tax supported large-scale public works
that required the marshalling of large labor forces, such as for
the building of forts, roads, and bridges, or the mining of metals
and gems. It also allowed the emperor to raise large armies to undertake
wars of conquest.Road building was important to establishing communication
throughout the huge, complex empire. The Inca emperors built a 16,000-km
(10,000-mi) network of stone roads. Trained runners carried official
messages, working in relays to cover up to 400 km (250 mi) per day.
Government officials traveled on two main north-south roads and
lesser crossroads that ran to every village in the empire. Local
government officers managed tambos, or rest houses, which were spaced
a day's journey apart and stocked with food and equipment.
To span the deep river gorges separating cities, the Inca built
suspension bridges of rope that were marvels of engineering. Some
of these rope bridges were nearly 100 m (330 ft) in length. One
of the Inca's greatest engineering feats was a bridge that crossed
a dangerously steep gorge along the ApurÃmac. Constructed
in 1350, this bridge—made from ropes of twined
plant fibersá survived for more than 500 years, until it
was abandoned in 1890.To increase agricultural production, the government
commissioned stone terraces in the steep, narrow Andean valleys.
Officials also oversaw the construction of grain warehouses, which
served as storage centers for a portion of each year's grain harvest.
The government distributed this grain to the people during times
of scarcity and famine, and also as forms of payment for labor.Among
the most impressive of the Incas' building projects were their vast
temples, palaces, and fortresses. Massive stone buildings, such
as the fortress at Sacsahuaman near Cuzco, were skillfully erected
with a minimum of engineering equipment. The wall of Sacsahuaman
was made of enormous stones, the largest of which weighed 200 tons.
Stones were transported with the help of wooden rollers, and they
fitted together so exactly that no mortar was necessary.Cuzco itself
was a marvel of Inca building and metalwork. The great Temple of
the Sun was almost entirely sheathed with gold plate. In its courtyard,
figures fashioned of gold depicted scenes from Inca life. Gold corn
appeared to grow out of clods of earth made of gold, and golden
llamas grazed on gold grass. Other cities included Machu Picchu,
whose ruins were discovered in 1911.
Society
The basis of Inca society was the ayllu, typically ayllus were families
living together and sharing land, animals, and crops. The ayllus
varied in size, from small farming villages to larger towns. Everyone
belonged to an ayllu. An individual was born into an ayllu and died
within it. Even the choice of a mate could be determined by the
ayllu. If an Inca man did not marry by the age of 20, the head of
the ayllu selected a mate for him.
Most Incas were farmers who worked the land. The emperor owned all
the land in the empire. He administered its use through the ayllu,
which divided land into allotments large enough for a family to
farm. Families planted and harvested the land communally. Each autumn
the ayllu adjusted land allotments to match increases or decreases
in the size of each family. Aside from producing their own food,
each ayllu worked additional fields to support the emperor and the
state religion.
The daily life of the people of the Inca Empire varied widely according
to social class. The emperor lived in a dazzling palace with gold
and silver walls, plates, and cups. He wore a gold fringe around
his forehead as the emblem of his office. His throne was merely
a low stool, possibly of red wood, although sometimes of gold. Although
his blankets were made of soft vicuna wool, he slept on the floor
like his lowliest subjects.
Although the emperor and other nobles often had many wives, the
emperor traditionally married his sister as his principal wife.
The next emperor would be chosen from among the sons born of this
union. Since both the emperor and his sister were considered direct
descendents of the god Inti, this union guaranteed that the son
who succeeded to the throne would also be a pure-blood descendant
of Inti. The heir was given strict training to make him able to
outdo other boys in strength and endurance. Royalty and nobility
were exempt from taxation and had such privileges as land, llamas,
fine clothing, and litters, which were mats upon which the royalty
and nobility would sit and be carried around by people of lesser
social levels.
Inca farmers, in contrast, led a life of hard work. After breakfasting
at daybreak on chicha, a kind of thick beer made from fermented
corn, the entire family worked in the fields until midmorning. Then
they ate the day's main meal, consisting of such foods as corn kernels
boiled with chili peppers and herbs; soup or stew of guinea-pig
meat thickened with potato flour; or cornmeal mixed with water and
baked in hot ashes into a hard bread. Potatoes were a staple, especially
in the mountains. In addition to working in the fields, women made
chicha, ground corn and potatoes into flour, and produced cloth
by spinning and weaving cotton or wool. If an Inca man were not
a noble, he could have only one wife.A typical Inca house was a
one-room rectangular building of adobe brick or stone with a thatched,
gabled roof, and without windows or a chimney. At night people slept
on the floor around a crude stove, which was made of stone cemented
with mud. During the day, people spent most of their time outdoors.
Upper-class houses were often larger and partitioned into several
rooms.
Although the quality of clothing varied, poor and rich and even
the emperor dressed in the same basic fashion. Men wore breechcloths,
sleeveless knee-length tunics, and cloaks or ponchos. Women wore
long dresses and capes fastened with a pin of copper, silver, or
gold. All garments were of woven cotton or wool cloth. The men fixed
their hair in a distinctive style to signify the allyu to which
they belonged and wore decorative earplugs of shell or metal.
Although there was little social mobility, some Inca peasants escaped
the grinding labor and harsh life of their class. Specially gifted
boys were trained in crafts or in keeping records and used their
skills to serve the emperor. Also exempt from menial labor were
the yanacona, unusually intelligent boys who were trained and employed
by the emperor as servants, pages, or temple attendants. They were
slaves, but they made important contacts and might rise high in
government service. Some Inca girls also received education and
distinction as Chosen women.The most beautiful 10-year-old girls
of each ayllu were selected. After studying religion and domestic
arts, they were placed in the households of the emperor and his
nobles. Sometimes they were sacrificed to the gods and buried atop
Andean mountain peaks.D
Economy
Agriculture was the basis of the economy, producing almost all the
foods in the Inca diet. Each ayllu had its own self-supporting farm
community. Ayllu members worked the land cooperatively to produce
food crops and cotton. All work was done by hand because the Incas
lacked wheeled tools and draft animals. Their simple implements
included a heavy wooden spade or foot plow called a taclla, a stone-tipped
club to break up clods, a bronze-bladed hoe, and a digging stick.
The inhabitants of the Andean region developed more than half the
agricultural products that the world eats today. Among these are
more than 20 varieties of corn; 240 varieties of potato; as well
as one or more varieties of squash, beans, peppers, peanuts, and
cassava (a starchy root); and quinoa, which is made into a cereal.
By far the most important of these was the potato. The Incas planted
the potato, which is able to withstand heavy frosts, as high as
4600 m (15,000 ft). At these heights the Incas could use the freezing
night temperatures and the heat of the day to alternately freeze
and dry the potatoes until all the moisture had been removed. The
Incas then reduced the potato to a light flour. They cultivated
corn up to an altitude of 4100 m (13,500 ft) and consumed it fresh,
dried, and popped. They also made it into an alcoholic beverage
known as saraiaka or chicha.
The Incas faced difficult conditions for agriculture. Mountainous
terrain limited the land that could be used for agriculture, and
water was sometimes scarce. To compensate, the Incas adopted and
improved upon the terracing methods invented by pre-Inca civilizations.
They built stone walls to create raised, level fields. These fields
formed steplike patterns along the sides of hills that were too
steep to irrigate or plough in their natural state. Terraces created
more arable land and kept the topsoil from washing away in heavy
rains.
Although rain generally falls in the Andes between December and
May, there are often years of drought. The Incas constructed complex
canals to bring water to terraces and other patches of arable land.
They also made use of natural fertilizers. Guano, the nitrate-rich
droppings of birds, was plentiful in coastal areas. In the highlands,
farmers used the remains of slaughtered llamas as a fertilizer.
Camelids, such as llamas, alpacas, and vicuás, were very
important to the economy. In addition to carrying burdens, llamas
and alpacas were raised as a source of coarse wool and of dung,
which was used for fuel. The finest-quality wool came from the wild
vicuá, which was caught, sheared, and set free again. The
Inca also raised guinea pigs, ducks, and dogs, which were the main
sources of meat protein.
The Incas mined extensive deposits of gold and silver, but this
wealth ultimately brought disaster in the 16th century, when Spanish
soldiers came seeking riches for themselves and their king.
Religion
The supreme god of the Incas was the creator god, Viracocha. The
Incas also worshiped the sun god, Inti, from whom the royal family
was believed to be descended, and a number of other nature gods
that were vital to the success of their crops. The Incas also believed
that certain objects and places were sacred. They called these objects
and places huacas. A huaca might be a great temple built by humans;
an object found in nature, such as a hill, spring, stream, or rock;
or a small amulet, or charm. Every Inca family had a huaca, some
object of worship that was put in a niche in the home. Offerings
were repeatedly given to the huacas to maintain balance in nature
and society.
The Incas also believed in an afterlife and worshiped the spirits
of their ancestors. The bodies and tombs of the dead were treated
as huacas. The bodies of dead rulers were among the holiest shrines
in the empire. These rulers were treated as if they were still alive,
attended to by servants in their palaces and consulted for advice
on daily affairs. Rural people practiced simpler rituals of ancestor
worship. When a person died, the body was embalmed and placed in
a beehive-shaped tomb with vessels of food and chicha. The family
of the deceased held funeral ceremonies for eight days and wore
black clothes for as long as a year, and women in mourning cut their
hair. The Incas also made above ground tombs called chullpas. They
would enter and reenter these tombs, providing more food and precious
goods and offerings to their mummified ancestors.
The Inca state religion was highly formal, with a large number of
priests to conduct its many rituals and ceremonies. In many rites,
live sacrifices were offered to the gods. The sacrificial offerings
were usually llamas or guinea pigs, but on the most sacred occasions
or in times of disaster, human children or chosen women might be
sacrificed. Priests prophesied the future and treated the sick,
since illness was thought to result from the ill will of a person
or a god. The chosen women served the gods, especially the sun god,
and certain of them, called virgins of the sun, took vows of chastity
for life. See also Pre-Columbian Religions: Inca Religion.
Science and Arts
Although priests treated most illness with healing ceremonies, the
Incas were capable of amazing feats of surgery, including amputations
and perhaps even bone transplants. The patient was first made unconscious
by drugs, intoxicants, or possibly hypnotism. Many of these surgeries
were successful, and the patients lived for years after the operations.
The Incas seem to have reckoned time by a lunar calendar. They had
accurate standards of measurement, including a fathom that equaled
about 163 cm (64 in) in length, and they used a balance beam for
measuring weight.
The Incas were skilled in such crafts as textiles, pottery, and
metalwork. They wove wool and cotton into intricate geometric patterns.
In addition to painted pottery vessels, the Incas made small objects
of clay that were sometimes decorated with animal forms. They created
a few standardized forms, chiefly llamas and human figurines, in
stone and metal. Goldsmithing was an Inca specialty. Smiths who
worked gold and silver lived in a special district and did not have
to pay taxes. The best examples of their art have not survived,
because the Spanish melted most Inca articles made of gold and shipped
them to Spain. Craftsmen made wide use of copper and bronze for
tools and ornaments, while fashioning gold and silver into jewelry
and other items for use by the nobility or the priests. See also
Pre-Columbian Art and Architecture.
The Incas produced a rich body of music, of which only fragments
survive. Inca music often accompanied ritualized religious dancing.
Musicians used repetitive rhythms and dissonant tones to induce
an almost hypnotic state in the dancers. Inca instruments were made
of wood, reeds, pottery, bone, shell, and metal. The Incas played
two basic kinds of instruments: wind and percussion. Wind instruments,
such as horns and flutes, produce a sound when a musician blows
into a tube or hollow chamber. Percussion instruments, such as bells
or drums, produce a sound when a musician strikes the instrument.
Drums and flutes were the most common instruments used by the Incas.
Flutes came in many varieties. The panpipe a series of cane or pottery
flutes tuned to different notes and tied together in a roware still
common in the Andes today.
How to cite this article:
"Inca Empire," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia
2003
http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2003 Microsoft Corporation. All
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